Research
Many toxicologists, especially in academic and nonprofit institutions, are
principally involved in the discovery of new knowledge concerning how toxic
substances produce their effects. There are many subspecialty areas in
toxicology research: chemical carcinogenesis, reproductive and developmental
toxicology, neurotoxicology, immunotoxicology, inhalation toxicology, risk
assessment and many others. Researchers use laboratory animals, human and animal
cells in culture, and other test systems to examine the cellular, biochemical
and molecular processes underlying toxic responses. Research opportunities are
available for individuals employed in industry, academia and government. There
are many commercial and nonprofit laboratories that also provide interesting and
challenging research opportunities.
Research is considered to be "basic" where no immediate commercial or public
health application is expected, but the knowledge will add to our understanding
of basic life processes. Such research is of great value in solving important
and long-term problems. Examples of this would be studies of how a particular
enzyme involved in the detoxification of a chemical is regulated at the gene
level or how a chemical affects the rate of cell division.
Other research is considered "applied" when the results are expected to yield
direct social or commercial benefit. Examples would be studies to identify new
chemicals that selectively kill certain pests or studies to determine if a
particular industrial process is responsible for a specific disease identified
in a population of workers. Development of antidotes for radiation injury or
chemical poisoning are examples of applied research of public health importance.
Product Safety Evaluation
Many industries employ toxicologists to assist in the evaluation of the safety
of their products. For therapeutic drugs, food additives, cosmetics,
agricultural chemicals and other classes of chemicals, federal laws often
require that the manufacturer provide adequate testing of the product before it
is released into commerce. Tests to determine if a chemical has the potential to
cause cancer, birth defects, reproductive effects, neurological toxicity or
other adverse effects are commonly conducted by the manufacturer.
Toxicologists involved in product safety evaluation have the responsibility
to ensure that such tests are designed, conducted and interpreted in a
scientifically sound manner. Information from such studies is, in turn, reviewed
by toxicologists in various regulatory agencies, such as the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), or by
international organizations to ensure that the products will not present an
unreasonable risk to human health or the environment.
When the information is available, toxicologists also utilize studies of
human populations (the science of epidemiology) to assist in the evaluation of
the safety and potential risks of the chemical products and by-products of
modern society.
Teaching
Toxicologists employed in colleges and universities are involved in teaching
toxicology to students and others. Because of increasing interest in the impacts
of chemicals on our society, many colleges and universities offer toxicology
courses at both the undergraduate and graduate level. Academic institutions that
do not have graduate programs in toxicology employ toxicologists to participate
in curriculum development and teach basic programs such as chemistry and
biology. Thus, opportunities exist to teach toxicology in small colleges as well
as major universities. One of the most important efforts of toxicologists in
academic institutions is the training of future generations of toxicologists in
basic and applied research, data interpretation and evaluation, and risk
assessment and regulatory affairs.
Public Service, Regulatory Affairs and Consulting
An important part of any science is communicating results and discussing
implications. The tremendous growth in public awareness of chemical hazards over
the last two decades has resulted in the passage of many laws governing the
production, use and disposal of chemicals. Many local, state and federal
regulatory agencies employ toxicologists to assist in the development and
enforcement of these laws. An increasingly important area of toxicology is in
public communication of chemical risks. Toxicologists employed by regulatory
agencies may often be called upon to explain the scientific basis for regulatory
actions, or to assist in communicating to the public why regulatory actions are
or are not taken in particular situations. There are many private consulting
firms with expertise in toxicology that can now provide such services to local
and state health departments, public utilities, private industries, etc. Thus,
many employment opportunities in the private sector are available to the
toxicologist interested in assisting public agencies and private industries in
resolving many important public health and environmental problems. Some
scientists like this aspect so much that they pursue consulting full-time.
The "Job Market Survey" estimates that 9,000 toxicologists are employed in
North America. Of recent Ph.D.s, 53% entered industry, 34% found positions in
academia and 12% in government. These numbers are similar to overall employment
statistics in the discipline as projected in the "Job Market Survey."
Chemical, Consumer Products, Pharmaceutical and Other Industries
Industries are the number one employer of toxicologists (47%). Product
development, product safety evaluation, and regulatory compliance generate a
large job market for toxicologists. Pharmaceutical industries employ 17% of
toxicologists, and chemical industries employ 7%. These industries often employ
toxicologists trained at all levels of education. The "Toxicologist Supply and
Expertise Survey" found that, of recent graduates, 53% of those with Ph.D.s,
73% of those with masters degrees and 58% of those with bachelors degrees
entered industry. Many industries have their own research and product safety
evaluation programs, while others may contract their work to specific research
organizations that are managed independently from the industry.
Academic Institutions
Academic institutions are the number two employer of toxicologists (21%). The
rapid growth in toxicology programs has generated a large and growing market for
toxicologists with doctoral level training. Although most of these opportunities
are in schools of medicine and/or public health in major universities, smaller
colleges are beginning to employ toxicologists to teach toxicology in basic
biology, chemistry and engineering programs.
Government
Government is the third largest employer of toxicologists (14%). Although most
government jobs are with federal regulatory agencies, many states are now
beginning to employ toxicologists with masters or doctoral degrees.
Consulting
An increasing number of toxicologists are employed in the professional services
industry (12%). Providing professional guidance and advice to local public
agencies, industries and attorneys involved in problems with toxic chemicals is
a rapidly growing activity for the experienced toxicologist. Many graduates of
baccalaureate and masters programs in toxicology are finding employment with
consulting firms. Individuals with doctoral training and several years of
experience in applied toxicology may also find opportunities directing projects
and serving as team leaders or administrators in the consulting field.
Research Foundations
A small proportion of toxicologists pursue research within nonprofit
organizations (4%). Numerous public and private research foundations employ
toxicologists to conduct research on specific problems of industrial or public
concern. Toxicologists at all levels of education may work for these research
foundations.
Although the majority of government and industry jobs are located in the
eastern portion of the United States, employment opportunities at all levels are
available throughout the country. The geographic distribution of SOT members in
the continental United States reflects job distribution.
As with any profession, the level of education and length of experience are
key determinants of salary. Entry level positions for those with doctoral
degrees are often in the range of $35,000 to $60,000, with rapid advancement
possible. In general, positions in industry pay slightly better than government
or academia. Mid-range professionals with a Ph.D. degree and 10 years of
experience can expect to earn $70,000 to $100,000 annually. Most executive
positions in toxicology exceed $100,000 per year, and some corporate executive
toxicologists earn $200,000 or more. Of course, salaries for those with
masters and/or bachelors degrees in toxicology will generally be less than
those for individuals with doctoral degrees, but are still highly competitive
with other science-based professions.
