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be measured, and the mechanism by which toxicity occurs can be carefully studied.
Standardized animal toxicity tests are now available for nearly all types of toxicity. They may be very specific for a particular effect, such as dermal irritation, or they may be general in nature, such as testing for non-specific chronic effects. Examples of toxicity testing that do not employ animals or humans are genetic toxicity tests that use plants, microorganisms, and mammalian cells.
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